WHR and hormonal health -
Similar results were found in overweight women; however, there was no statistically significant difference in proportions between overweight and obese women.
b P -value for comparing percent parent estrogens between women with current BMI BMI body mass index. Note: Summed child estrogen metabolites include the following estrogen metabolites: 2-catechols 2-hydroxyestrone, 2-hydroxyestradiol , methylated 2-catechols conjugated and unconjugated 2-methoxyestrone, conjugated and unconjugated 2-methoxyestradiol, 2-hyroxyestronemethyl ether , 4-catechols 4-hydroxyestrone , methylated 4-catechols 4-methoxyestrone, 4-methoxyestradiol , pathway metabolites 16α-hydroxyestrone, conjugated and unconjugated estriol, ketoestradiol, epiestriol, epiestriol.
P-values for comparing women with current BMI Among current MHT users, WHR was not associated with parent estrogens but was inversely associated with methylated catechols, namely 2-methoxyestrone vs. The association with estradiol did not remain after adjustment for current BMI data not shown , suggesting that the association may be accounted for by current BMI.
former MHT users data not shown. Results also did not change after excluding outliers data not shown.
Associations with measured WHR were not independent of current BMI, suggesting that the associations were driven by overall adiposity rather than by fat distribution per se.
Our findings of positive associations between current BMI and parent estrogens are consistent with those from previous studies [ 8 , 21 — 23 , 32 — 34 ]. These findings are also in line with biological evidence that supports the major source of estrogens in postmenopausal women being via aromatization of androgens in adipose tissue [ 35 , 36 ].
The differential associations between BMI and parent estrogens by MHT use mirror the similar differential associations of BMI with cancer risk [ 37 , 38 ], further supporting the notion that endogenous estrogens may mediate the BMI-cancer association, although alternative mechanisms may also exist [ 24 , 39 , 40 ].
The positive associations of BMI with postmenopausal breast cancer [ 37 , 38 ] and endometrial cancer [ 41 , 42 ] risk have been found consistently in women not using MHT; however, the associations have been weakly positive or near null among current MHT users [ 37 , 38 , 41 , 42 ], possibly owing to a threshold effect of circulating estrogens in current MHT users.
Current MHT users have higher circulating levels of estrogens; thus, increased estrogen production by adipose tissue may not contribute to further increase in cancer risk. To date, few studies have examined current BMI in relation to estrogen metabolism beyond parent estrogens.
Earlier studies measured only two estrogen metabolites that have been thought to be the most and the least carcinogenic: 16α-hydroxyestrone and 2-hydroxyestrone, respectively [ 43 — 46 ].
These earlier studies have shown an inverse association between adiposity and the ratio of urinary 2-hydroxyestrone to 16α-hydroxyestrone in both pre- and postmenopausal women [ 44 , 45 , 47 ]. Similarly to our findings of inverse associations between BMI and methylated 2-catechols after adjusting for unconjugated estradiol in postmenopausal women, researchers in a study of premenopausal women found that BMI was inversely associated with most methylated catechols measured in urine [ 48 ].
In our secondary analyses, we also observed that obese women appeared to be less likely to metabolize parent estrogens into child metabolites in general but more likely to favor metabolism of parent estrogens into pathway estrogen metabolites over 2- or 4-methylated catechols.
Our findings provide novel, additional detailed information about patterns of estrogen metabolism. Methylation prevents catechols from metabolizing into quinones, which can form quinone adducts and induce oxidative DNA damage [ 53 ]. Similarly, in studies where body fat distribution was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry [ 32 ] or measured WHR [ 33 ], central obesity was not associated with circulating unconjugated estradiol independent of BMI among postmenopausal women not using MHT, suggesting that body fat distribution does not provide additional information about circulating estradiol beyond what overall adiposity as measured by BMI provides.
BMI at age 18 years and height may indicate early-life nutritional status, which may not influence estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women. The difference in results may be due to the variation in study populations e. excreted levels. We acknowledge several limitations of this study. However, in a previous study using the same assay we used, researchers showed moderate to high 1-year ICCs in postmenopausal women for parent estrogens 0.
BMI at age 18 years was based on self-reported height and weight. However, measurement error in this context is unlikely to be related to serum estrogen levels and, if present, would likely underestimate the associations.
Despite these limitations, this study has important strengths. Whereas most epidemiologic studies have used self-reported measures, measurement error in the present study was reduced by using measured height, weight, and waist and hip circumferences. Further, use of a large sample size and careful adjustment for potential confounders assessed at blood collection increased the validity of the results.
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Obesity Silver Spring. Schairer C, Fuhrman BJ, Boyd-Morin J, Genkinger JM, Gail MH, Hoover RN, et al. The Minahasans and Sangirese people of Northern Sulawesi are mainly monogamous. They practice agriculture and are known for matri-focal social organization and widespread practice of child adoption and transfer between households The studies among the Hadza and Datoga were conducted in the Lake Eyasi region of Tanzania, Africa, between and , and data on the Isanzu were collected in in the Mkalama District of the Singida Region, North-Central Tanzania.
Data on the Ob Ugric people were collected in in Khanty-Mansiisk and in the villages of Berezovsky and the Belojarsky Regions of the Khanty-Mansijsky Autonomous District in Russia. Data from the Minahasans and Sangirese were collected in on the Sulawesi and Sangir Islands in Indonesia. In all other populations, waist circumference was measured with measuring tape horizontally at the narrowest part of the abdominal region.
If the narrowest part of the abdominal region was not clearly distinguishable, the waist was measured still horizontally midway between the 10th rib and the crest of the pelvic bone All people were measured in light clothes, like a clothing called kanga in the case of African groups.
When a participant wore heavy clothes e. BMI was measured in a standard way, as weight measured with scales divided by height measured with an anthropometer squared. All women who declared being pregnant at the time of investigation were excluded from participation. Similar to previous research 73 , the number of children was self-reported.
We measured body-mass index BMI , waist-to-hip ratio WHR and number of children among women in each study population. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between all variables in the total sample.
Table 2 presents means and standard deviations of the estimated WHR in each population depending on the number of children. For the robustness check, all analyses presented below were also performed with a raw number of children as a predictor.
To test whether direction and strength of the effect were similar across populations, we analyzed this relationship with the use of multilevel regressions. As a subsample of Indonesians from Sulawesi was quite small in comparison with other populations, in this study we repeated our multilevel regression analyses without and with Indonesians.
As the pattern of results was almost exactly the same, we decided to focus on estimates obtained on the entire sample including Indonesians. Before analysis, we standardized z -scored the dependent variable WHR , the predictor the log-transformed number of children , and control variables: BMI and age in a way that all of our individual level variables had a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 see: ref.
We tested three models: 1 a random intercept model, allowing for differences in the intercept, but assuming the same slope across populations, 2 a random slope model, allowing for different slopes, but assuming the same intercept across populations, and 3 a random intercept and random slope model, allowing both intercepts and slopes to vary among populations.
Hence, we focused on the more parsimonious, random intercept model see Table 3. Importantly, neither the variance of the intercept, nor the slope was significant, indicating that the effect of the number of children on WHR was culturally stable.
More specifically, these results showed that the intercept of the WHR was similar across populations, but even more importantly — that slopes in these populations did not differ significantly. This allows us to conclude that this effect is stable across the studied populations.
In terms of incremental change of the WHR related to each child, the estimated WHR of females with no children controlling in the ANOVA for age, BMI and ethnicity was 0. Even if weak in terms of the effect size, this relationship was statistically significant and linear Fig.
The Relationship between the Number of Children and the WHR BMI, age and ethnicity are partialled-out. To perform a robustness check of our results, we provided a two-step procedure.
First, we repeated our analyses on a restricted sample, first excluding from the analyses all females who were potentially postmenopausal, i. All relationships we have previously observed were replicated. The observed effect was statistically significant while controlling BMIs and WHRs that differed across participating societies and generally increased with age in each study population.
Our findings indicate that the positive WHR-parity relationship is strongly culturally stable - we observed this association in populations from different continents Africa, Eurasia and South America , and among nomadic hunter-gatherers, pastoralists and farmers alike.
In summary, in line with previous studies conducted among developed societies 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , we argue that the positive association between WHR and number of children may be general for humans.
In order to explore the observed WHR-parity association further, we investigated it among women in reproductive age that had at least one child. WHRs of nulliparous and older women may differ from regular WHRs for reasons other than number of births, and this might influence the effect of number of births on WHR.
For example, much of the high WHR of 50—70 year old women may be due to factors other than number of offspring, like obesity or health problems, and yet they would have the most offspring and age, and hence bias the results of the analysis. The populations participating in our research differed from one another.
However, even when the population factor was included in the analysis, the number of children remained a significant predictor of WHR for the total sample while controlling for the age and BMI of women. Below, we propose several explanations as to why number of births, associated with lower WHR, can be important for female mate value.
First, as discussed in the Introduction, fewer children mean higher level of LPUFAs that support fetal brain development Second, following 2 , 3 , 75 , limited reproductive potential, and limited windows of female fertile ovulatory cycles in natural fertility populations mean that each child born is probably 1 of 7 or less children a man can sire with the woman in total if he mates with her long-term.
Hence, it can be predicted that the preference for a low WHR results from male preference for women at peak residual reproductive value, just prior to first probably fertile ovulatory cycle and with no previous children.
This phenomenon seems to operate in modern human societies, wherein suspected nonpaternity is one of the most common reasons of refusals to pay child support among American men Although there are certain adaptations men have for differential parental solicitude e.
Low relative WHR is one of them. The clear association between female age and WHR that we observed in our research might be also very important in the male mate choice. In almost all participating societies, the youngest women had the lowest WHR Table 1. Human mate selection has been widely investigated over the past several decades e.
Thus, men may need to be sensitive to certain indirect cues to potential reproductive value, like female age. Our findings might suggest that preferences for women with lower WHRs can be beneficial in small-scales societies also because WHR may be a cue to younger age across such populations Table 1.
On the other hand, it is important to note that the mean WHR within an age cohort can vary significantly across human populations Thus, age-WHR associations may be reliable mainly at the within-population level. Overall, the WHR-related issues discussed above WHR as a marker of fertility, parity history, health, etc.
suggest that preferences for certain values of this body parameter should be culturally universal. Indeed, most studies show preferences for relatively low WHR within respective populations 7—12; but see: refs 13 , It needs to be noted that the current study has some limitations.
First, our design was cross-sectional while it would be more accurate to assess the effect each childbirth has on WHR in a longitudinal study. Second, we compared the data collected by several researchers in a few cultures. Nevertheless, our research comprise data collected among hundreds of women from several traditional societies, which has an undeniable value; collecting such data would be almost impossible in more a complex, longitudinal design involving only one researcher.
Finally, the participating societies differed in sample size and number of nulliparous women. For example, large size of nulliparous Ob Ugric women and their low WHR could potentially affect our results. However, as presented in the results section, even after exclusion of all females without children from all analyses the number of children remains a significant predictor of WHR in the whole sample.
In summary, we demonstrated a culturally stable, significant relationship between number of children and WHR among women, controlling for BMI and age. Along with selection of younger and healthier women, preferences for low WHRs may enable men to mate with women of highest possible reproductive potential.
These findings increase our understanding of sexual preferences in traditional, small-scale societies that approximate reproductive and infectious disease conditions under which the evolutionary adaptations arose. Singh, D. Female mate value at a glance: relationship of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity and attractiveness.
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v Zheng, W. Sulfotransferase 1A1 polymorphism, endogenous estrogen exposure, well-done meat intake, and breast cancer risk. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer.
In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. DESIGN: Prospective observational study of premenopausal women with obesity, infertility and menstrual dysfunction.
SETTING: Department of Endocrinology and Reproduction of the University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of Heidelberg. Twenty-nine women took part in a weight reducing program lasting 32±14 mean±s. Plasma lipids and liver enzymes. Blood glucose, insulin, C-peptide and different steroid and pituitary hormones during oral glucose loading.
WHR correlated inversely with HDL-cholesterol. Insulin resistance was greater with increasing WHR. Group 2 had greater HDL-cholesterol levels. One subject in group 1, five women in group 2 conceived spontaneously after weight reduction. WHR is important in preventive medicine, as typical metabolic profiles are already present in young women before clinical manifestation.
Women with android obesity seem to be more prone to develop menstrual irregularity and infertility. The hyperinsulinaemia may be the pathway.
Low-intensity aerobic workouts you for Heatlh nature. You heaoth using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain heapth best experience, anc recommend you use a more hea,th to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. DESIGN: Prospective observational study of premenopausal women with obesity, infertility and menstrual dysfunction. SETTING: Department of Endocrinology and Reproduction of the University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of Heidelberg. Twenty-nine women took part in a weight reducing program lasting 32±14 mean±s. The hofmonal ratio or waist-to-hip ratio WHR is the dimensionless ratio of the circumference of the waist to Low-intensity aerobic workouts hormoal the hips. For WHR and hormonal health, hormojal person with Mindful eating and mindful movement/exercise 75 Thyroid Maintenance Products waist and 95 cm hips or a inch waist and inch hips has WHR of anc 0. The WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of health, fertilityand the risk of developing serious health conditions. WHR correlates with perceptions of physical attractiveness. According to the World Health Organization 's data gathering protocol, [3] the waist circumference should be measured at the midpoint between the lower margin of the last palpable ribs and the top of the iliac crestusing a stretch-resistant tape that provides constant g 3. Hip circumference should be measured around the widest portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor.
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